The Permian-Triassic Extinction Event

The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K/T) Extinction--the global cataclysm that killed the dinosaurs 65 million years ago--gets all the press, but the fact is that the mother of all global extinctions was the Permian-Triassic (P/T) Event that transpired about 250 million years ago, at the end of the Permian period. Within the space of a million years or so, over 90 percent of the earths marine organisms were rendered extinct, along with more than 70 percent of their terrestrial counterparts. In fact, as far as we know, the P/T Extinction was as close as life has ever come to being completely wiped off the planet, and it had a profound effect on the plants and animals that survived into the ensuing Triassic period. (See a list of the Earths 10 Biggest Mass Extinctions.) Before getting to the causes of the Permian-Triassic Extinction, its worth examining its effects in closer detail. The hardest-hit organisms were marine invertebrates possessing calcified shells, including corals, crinoids and ammonoids, as well as various orders of land-dwelling insects (the only time we know of that insects, usually the hardiest of survivors, have ever succumbed to a mass extinction). Granted, this may not seem very dramatic compared to the 10-ton and 100-ton  dinosaurs that went defunct after the K/T Extinction, but these invertebrates dwelt close to the bottom of the food chain, with disastrous effects for vertebrates higher up the evolutionary ladder. Terrestrial organisms (other than insects) were spared the full brunt of the Permian-Triassic Extinction, only losing two-thirds of their numbers, by species and genera. The end of the Permian period witnessed the extinction of most plus-sized amphibians and sauropsid reptiles (i.e., lizards), as well as the majority of the therapsids, or mammal-like reptiles (the scattered survivors of this group evolved into the first mammals during the ensuing Triassic period). Most anapsid reptiles also disappeared, with the exception of the ancient ancestors of modern turtles and tortoises, like Procolophon. Its uncertain how much of an effect the P/T Extinction had on diapsid reptiles, the family from which crocodiles, pterosaurs and dinosaurs evolved, but clearly a sufficient number of diapsids survived to spawn these three major reptile families millions of years later. The Permian-Triassic Extinction Was a Long, Drawn-Out Event The severity of the Permian-Triassic Extinction stands in stark contrast to the leisurely pace at which it unfolded. We know that the later K/T Extinction was precipitated by the impact of an asteroid on Mexicos Yucatan Peninsula, which spewed millions of tons of dust and ash into the air and led, within a couple of hundred (or couple of thousand) years, to the extinction of dinosaurs, pterosaurs and marine reptiles worldwide. By contrast, the P/T Extinction was much less dramatic; by some estimates, this event actually spanned as much as five million years during the late Permian period. Further complicating our assessment of the P/T Extinction, many types of animals were already on the decline before this cataclysm started in earnest. For example, pelycosaurs--the family of prehistoric reptiles best represented by Dimetrodon--had mostly disappeared off the face of the earth by the early Permian period, with a few straggling survivors succumbing millions of years later. The important thing to realize is that not all extinctions at this time can be directly attributed to the P/T Event; the evidence either way is constrained by which animals happen to be preserved in the fossil record. Another important clue, the importance of which has yet to be fully adduced, is that it took an unusually long time for the earth to replenish its previous diversity: for the first couple of million years of the Triassic period, the earth was an arid wasteland, practically devoid of life! What Caused the Permian-Triassic Extinction? Now we come to the million-dollar question: what was the proximate cause of the Great Dying, as the Permian-Triassic Extinction is called by some paleontologists? The slow pace with which the process unfolded points to a variety of interrelated factors, rather than a single, global catastrophe. Scientists have proposed everything from a series of major asteroid strikes (the evidence for which would have been erased by over 200 million years of erosion) to a calamitous change in ocean chemistry, perhaps caused by the sudden release of huge methane deposits (created by decaying microorganisms) from the bottom of the sea floor. The bulk of the recent evidence points to yet another possible culprit--a series of gigantic volcanic eruptions in the region of Pangea that today corresponds to modern-day eastern Russia (i.e., Siberia) and northern China. According to this theory, these eruptions released a huge amount of carbon dioxide into the earths atmosphere, which gradually leached down into the oceans. The disastrous effects were threefold: acidification of the water, global warming, and (most important of all) a drastic reduction in atmospheric and marine oxygen levels, which resulted in the slow asphyxiation of most marine organisms and many terrestrial ones. Could a disaster on the scale of the Permian-Triassic Extinction ever happen again? It may well be happening right now, but in super-slow-motion: the levels of carbon dioxide in the earths atmosphere are indisputably increasing, thanks partly to our burning of fossil fuels, and life in the oceans is beginning to be affected as well (as witness the crises facing coral reef communities around the world). Its unlikely that global warming will cause human beings to go extinct anytime soon, but the prospects are less sanguine for the rest of the plants and animals with which we share the planet!

Example Of Observation Report - 1843 Words

Observation-is a great fundamental assessment that will allow us to gain information about general strengths and weaknesses of this learner. Robert M. is one of the 10 gifted and talented students in this particular 4th grade class (Data resource – acceptance to gifted and talented program letter, personal file). Observation of Robert’s skills during the class work time (data resource – personal notes): - High performance capabilities in the ELA, Math, Science, and Social Studies areas; - Intellectual capabilities are beyond the average level of students in the 4th grade; - High level of performance in the areas that require critical thinking and problem solving; - Problem solving solutions are usually presented in the unusual, creative†¦show more content†¦2. Pair-share writing assignment, where another student would have a set of really good penmanship skills. 3. Include 1-2 minute stretch break for everybody every 30 to 45 minutes and ask him to wait for the next stretch brake, so we can do it together, but until then encourage him to focus on the class discussion or activity. Random comments will disappear once a certain amount of focus is present. Fountas and Pinnell reading assessment will inform us about Robert’s reading abilities, his comprehension of the text, fluency and vocabulary. According to Fountas and Pinnell reading level system, Robert’s reading level is â€Å"W† (Data source – Fountas and Pinnell reading assessment). Just for comparison purposes, the average reading level in this 4th grade class is â€Å"Q†. Robert scored 3 out of 3 on the comprehension evaluation and only 2 out of 3 on fluency, which means that his reading fluency is in need of some improvement. His fluency score was affected by faster than normal reading speed and that, in turn, was followed by careless reading mistakes and loss of expression through obvious disregard of the punctuation. Robert’s overconfidence that he knows the material, and no text is difficult enough for him is also making him feel as he needs to read the text faster. Following strategies will help Robert to improve his reading fluency: 1. To encourage Robert to slow down and read with expression during theShow MoreRelatedChild Observation Report Essay example1832 Words   |  8 Pages Introduction The location of the observation was at the Community Center (Early Childhood education program) at 11:00am to 12:30pm on April 15, 2014. The meaningful experiences in early childhood education can positively shape childrens development. 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The format for this will differ from that of the osteoporosis lab report because the dissection is used as an opportunity to review structure and function for the major systems rather than to test a hypothesis and draw a conclusion. Please the following information as a guideline for compiling the lab report. Only one lab report per group is required. You do notRead MoreEssay on Bus310 Accounting Theory and Accountability954 Words   |  4 Pagestheory look for evidence to support the theory. This evidence should be independently observed and consistent after repeated observations. Some theories are speculative or ideas or guesses floated to encourage researchers to undertake the observations required to prove or disprove the theory. The question often debated is what comes first — the theory or the observation? 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Therefore, when reporting data, it is important not to reveal students private information and only report on groups large enough to make it impossible to identify individuals. The school reports on groups that are twenty or more people and follows the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA). The school seeks permission from the administration and parents, where appropriate, to collectRead MoreLalla1219 Words   |  5 Pages5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Participant Observation DeMUNCK and SOBO (1998) provide several advantages of using participant observation over other methods of data collection. These include that it affords access to the backstage culture (p.43); it allows for richly detailed description, which they interpret to mean that ones goal of describing behaviors, intentions, situations, and events as understood by ones informants is highlighted (p.43); and it provides opportunities for

Linguistics National Attachment and Generational Identity

Question: Discuss about theLinguistics for National Attachment and Generational Identity. Answer: Introduction The type of the myth that is created by the society itself reveals the approaching into the aspiration and the values of the society. The myth about the society defines the behaviour so that with the passage of time the myth tends to act like a prophecy that is self-fulfilling in nature. Thus, the individuals of the society start to apply the myth in their own daily lives. In the opinion of the author, every country develops certain national myths and national identity that may either have resemblance with the reality or may not[1]. The social identities can be considered both liberating and oppressive for the individuals in the society. The identity of Australia has often been negatively depicted as racist, hostile to art and homophobic. This increases the demand for accepting alternate offers by Australians. Discussion Unlike the myths of America, the myths of Australia have little relation with the realising of the ambition of an individual. Nevertheless, the myths of Australia regarding the Anzacs, mateship, egalitarianism and a belief in a fair go has been useful in obtaining a peaceful society where none of the individuals feels inferior or superior. As opined by the author, the myths do not have any support in Australia from all over the globe[2]. One of the myths of Australia is about the Anzac myth that refers to the exploitation of the brave soldiers of Australia who were determined to prove themselves as effective representatives of the fledging nation. However, the majority of the individuals were able to identify only a few of the Anzacs. Charles Bean sorted out the stories of heroism actively that took place in the battlefield and claimed that the nation of Australia was born at Gallipoli. In order to understand the importance of the myth in understanding the nation identity of Australia, studies have been conducted to determine the attitude of the Australians towards the Anzacs. From the survey data result, it can be stated that the Anzacs are an integral part for the Australians. The result further indicates that the mid aged and the young Australians associate the Australian identity with the Anzacs to a large extent. Opponent argued that among the tertiary educated, city dwellers and individuals having identity with left leaning political parties are less likely to give the Anzacs priority[3]. A famed character trait of the Australian is the mateship. It has been mentioned that Australia is the only nation that celebrates friendship within their national identities[4]. Therefore, celebrating friendship as national identity is considered as a unique trait of Australia. The concept of mateship became stronger after the World War 1. The soldiers of Australia realised that they were fighting a battle in Europe that was no such importance and had little to do with the Australians. It became a kind of justification for fighting for the mates. As per the history of Australia, it can be inferred that there is two influences of the celebration of mateship. The first influence that was identified was the suffering of extreme hardship during convict transport, war in Australia and economic downfall. The second reason was that a number of migrants to Australia did not have families and hence turned towards their mates or friends at times of need. On the contradictory, the author menti oned that not all the individuals in Australia had faced hardship or lacked family bonding[5]. Therefore, mateship has not been that important to certain Australians. Apart from this, as mateship has played a crucial role in shaping the social development of Australia, it is essential in understanding the present situation of Australia. In Australia, not every individual is equal and there is a clear difference among the individuals based on wealth and culture. Moreover, there exists difference among them even in the workplace as they have different level of responsibility, abilities and ranks. There have been circumstances where the critics have been trying to indicate the presence of the inequalities. Although the nation of Australia is not a society of equals, there is a myth that indicates that the society needs to be equal. The myth shapes how the Australians engage with each other in the society. Australians never had a national identity that has been prescribed by the politicians or institutions that helped the nation to wield the power. As stated by the author, the Australians had no existence until 1948 and were considered as British citizens[6]. On losing the identity of the British citizen, there were a number of Australians who had felt aimless and lost. In addition to this, the Australians have unsancti oned national identities for the maximum number of times. However, the identities have never been capable enough to build adequate status to enhance the minority status. As opined by the author, a belief in a fair go is characterised as wanting to help the loser over the tormenter[7]. The myth seemed to be find importance as the authorities treated the migrant in a similar way as they used to treat the convicts. The myth was more famous among the soldiers of the Australia. Moreover, there are many evidences that is effective in proving the importance of fair go shaping the behaviour of the soldiers of Australia. The belief in the fair go supports living and letting others live or ensure that the individuals do not hurt others. Therefore, such an identity cannot be considered as one of the liberating national identities on earth. In support of the fair go, the author mentioned that the Battle of Brisbane signified that the fair go myth can be applicable to attack the racism[8]. Majority of the cultures all over the globe are designed in such a manner that the culture is created around the ruling class and subservient class under it. The national ident ity of Australia is considered as a work in progress, where the individuals of the nation consider the future more important than the past. The national interest and the national identities need to be distinguished properly that helps to build a strong relation with the neighbours and have a proper alliance with USA. The Australians are confused about the identity as they are not aborigines, neither British, Europeans, Asian nor Americans. They need to understand the effective myth that they can use in order to unify themselves and create a sense of being Australian. The best way to define an Australian is to let the way they want to be. The Australians are citizens of the nation and they have to accept few core values and characteristics prevailing in the society of Australia. Conclusion Among the various myths of the nation, the myth regarding the Anzacs, mateship, egalitarianism and a belief in a fair go are effective in understanding the national identity of Australia. It can be inferred that Australia being a small country, often has to suffer from the difficulties regarding the national identities. Although there are many Australians whose ancestors were transported, there still exists a convict stain as the indigenous people are considered under the Australian identity myth. From the complete detailed study, it can be inferred that there is a lack of national identity and the presence of the identity can be effectively studied with the help of the various myth about the nation of Australia. Along with Australia, there are other nations too that suffer from national identity crisis. In terms of the national identity, Australians fall back on these myths to claim everything they authentically deserve. References West and H. Aarons, 'War Memory, National Attachment And Generational Identity In Australia' (2016) 52 Journal of Sociology. Anthony Moran, 'Multiculturalism As Nation-Building In Australia: Inclusive National Identity And The Embrace Of Diversity' (2011) 34 Ethnic and Racial Studies. Gillian Shenfield, 'Metformin: Myths, Misunderstandings And Lessons From History' (2013) 36 Aust Prescr. Steve Wood, 'Nations, National Identity And Prestige' (2014) 16 National Identities.

Nuke The Bastards! A Satire Essay Example For Students

Nuke The Bastards! A Satire Essay NUKE THE BASTARDS!A SATIREThe decision to drop the atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was perhaps the greatest American achievement since the defeat of the Native Americans and their containment in reservations. Not only did it swiftly end the war but it showed the Russians who held the upper hand. It also paved the way for the Cold War, which increased America’s war machine to the unparalleled level it’s at today, as well as numerous memorable events such as the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the Cuban Missile Crisis. There was simply no other way to win without dropping the bombs. It was evident at the time that the only way to end the war quickly, as well as establish an advantage over the Russians, was to eliminate only about 300,000 Japanese people in a spectacular demonstration of American military power. Demonstrating the nuclear weapon to the Japanese with a â€Å"surrender or this will happen to you† type of ultimatum would have done nothing but made the Japanese fight harder and longer, causing hundreds of thousands of American deaths. The American military forces were at the end of their tethers, so invasion would have been impossible without significant loss of life. Through the years of island hopping and fighting the fortified Japanese forces, the Americans knew that the Japanese fought to the last man. In the months prior to the atomic bombings, Japanese civilians were being trained with basic weaponry and hustled into the military, ready to ward of invasion to protect their e mperor. Without demonstrating with a firm hand what was demanded by â€Å"unconditional surrender,† the Japanese would never have given up. When faced with total destruction, they chose to lay down their arms and allowed a peaceful invasion to take place. Since then, Japan has grown as one of the leading technological countries in the world. As for the civilians killed and the controversies that have gone on through the years as a result of their deaths, it was a demonstration. Hiroshima and Nagasaki were the chosen targets mainly because of their military targets and for the geography. Scientists at the time did not know the full range of the atomic blast, and the tall mountains that mostly surrounded the two cities provided a way to contain the nuclear explosion. The number of civilians killed by the atomic blasts is greatly outnumbered by the total number of American and Japanese combined casualties that would have resulted from an American military invasion of Japan. The Russians at the same time were experimenting with nuclear technology. They had not yet figured out how to make the atomic bombs. When they witnessed Hiroshima and Nagasaki, they knew that America had won the atomic arms race. When President Truman learned that the atomic bomb had been successfully tested he dealt with the Russians firmly and aggressi vely during the negotiating between leaders of both countries. Prime Minister Winston Churchill stated, â€Å"He told the Russians just where they got off and generally bossed the whole meeting.† Essentially this sparked many significant cultural events, most notably the Cold War and the Korean War, in which the United States has come out victorious. One could say that the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki have sparked events that have led to America being the most powerful country in the world. Without using nuclear weapons, America would not have made it out of World War II and come out on top. The Japanese were an enemy that would never cease fighting, and the Russians were a threat lingering in the background. It was a definite landmark in the history of the United States military as well as technological branches. In order to save millions of people from potentially years of fighting, the bombs were dropped and history ran its course. Creative Writing